Cebuano grammar

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Video Cebuano grammar

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

Pronouns are inflected for person, number and case. No gender distinctions are made for the third person singular: he and she are both translated in Cebuano as siya.

The three cases are absolutive, ergative and oblique.

* - Ta only when the object is the second person singular, i.e., ka, mo, etc. For example, Nakita ta ka, NOT *Nakita ko ka.

Usage of full and short forms

The short forms are used most often in conversation. However, the full forms must be used when they occur on their own as a predicate.

Examples (Those marked with an asterisk, "*", are ungrammatical):

Ako si Juan. I am John.  *Ko si Juan.  
Kamo'y moadto ngadto sa Banawa. You (plu.) are going to Banawa.  *Mo'y moadto ngadto sa Banawa.  

But...

Mao ko si Juan.  Mao mo'y moadto ngadto sa Banawa.  

First person plural: clusivity

In Cebuano, like most other Austronesian languages, the first person plural forms encode clusivity. This distinction, not found in most European languages, signifies whether or not the addressee is included.

Examples:

Moadto mi sa eskuwelahan.
We (someone else and I but not you) will go to school.  
Moadto ta sa eskuwelahan.
We (you and I and perhaps someone else) will go to school.  

Maps Cebuano grammar

Demonstratives

Cebuano demonstratives are as follows:

* When the demonstrative is used as a predicate, the full form must be used.
** Both forms, those beginning with 'ng-' and those with 'd-', are interchangeable and correspond to the deictives below.
+ Although not represented in the orthography, forms in this row end in a glottal stop:
kana /kana?/, na /na?/, niana /ni?ana?/, nganha /?anha?/, diha /diha?/, dinha /dinha?/.

Examples:

Unsa kini/ni?
What's this?  
Kinsa kana/na?
Who is that?  
Gikan ning sulata sa Presidente sa Pilipinas.
This letter is from the President of the Philippines  
Mangaon sila didto.
They will eat there.  
Nikaon kadtong mga tawo ug mga bata didto sa piyesta/pista.
Those people and children ate/eat/are eating at the feast.  

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Adverbs

Deictics

Deictics, words such as here and there, reference locations between the speaker and addressee. In addition to the same four-way distinction of proximity for demonstratives (near speaker, near speaker and addressee, near addressee and remote), deictics can express three tenses:

• Present: "X is here/there now"
• Past: "X was here/there"
• Future: "X will be here/there"

The present and future tense forms can precede or follow the words or phrases they modify by linking with nga. The past tense forms, however, only have a past meaning if they precede their words or phrases. If they follow, they convey no tense.

The 'ng-' forms are always tenseless. They follow the words or phrases they modify and can substitute equivalent past forms. In addition, they show movement or motion to the relative location which past forms cannot.

+ Forms in this row end in a glottal stop:
naa /na?a?/, anaa /?ana?a?/, diha /diha?/, dinha /dinha?/, anha /?anha?/, diha /diha?/, dinha /dinha?/, nganha /?anha?/.

Examples:

Dia diri ang bata.  The child is over here.     Toa si lolo sa Amerika.  Grandfather is in America.     Dinhi ang Doktor gahapon.  The doctor was here yesterday.     Adto siya sa Maynila.  She is in Manila.     Nidagan ang bata ngadto sa balay niya.  The child ran there (thither) to his/her house.  

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Nouns

Cebuano nouns fall into of two classes: personal and general. Personal nouns refer to persons or personified objects and animals and names. All other nouns fall into the general category. Nouns do not inflect for case or number: Case is shown using case markers; the plural number is show with the particle mga.

Case

Cebuano nouns assume three cases based on their role in a sentence:

• Absolutive - This is the case of the predicative nominal and the subject of such phrases. It is the case used for the topic of transitive verbs.
• Ergative - This is the case of the actor or agent in non-actor focus verb forms and the case of possession and roles of the genitive case.
• Oblique - A peripheral case, this is the case of the direct object of actor-focus verbs. It is the used when the case relationship is non-core, i.e., neither ergative nor absolutive in nature.

The use of sa VS. og in the oblique case is a matter of definiteness when the noun is the object of an actor-focus verb. Compare the following examples.

1. [Definite] Nipalit/Mipalit si Juan sa sakyanan. John bought the car.
2. [Indefinite] Mipalit si Juan og sakyanan. John bought a car

In example sentence 1, the car that John bought is particular. It may have been a car he was thinking about buying or one that the speaker was selling John. In 2, the speaker may or may not know the specifics about the car in question.

Number

Plurality is shown by preceding the noun with the particle mga /ma?a/.

There are special cases though:  

1. Adding the prefix 'ka-' before and the suffix '-an' can pluralize a noun (the suffix '-han' is used if the root word ends with a vowel). This word treatment is used to group what are considered identical objects as one entity. (e.g.) "libot" which is regularly used as a verb meaning "to go around" but in this case as a noun meaning "surrounding" (as in "palibot") can be changed to "KAlibutAN" which means "world" (or 'the entire surroundings'). Be aware that the vowel "o" was changed to "u" after the pluralization. (e.g.) "tawo" which means "man" or 'person" can be changed to "KAtawHAN" which means "men" or "people". Be aware that the vowel "o" was omitted in this case because the "w" carries the sound of "o" by itself. other examples: "balay" (house): "kabalayan" (houses)

               "bata" (child/boy/girl): "kabataan", this word is in special case, even the root word "bata" ends with a vowel the suffix '-an' instead of '-han' is used. So remember not to "always" stick to the rule.                 "nasod" (nation): "kanasuran" (nations), "o' was changed to "u" and the "d" changed to "r" because that usually (not always) happens to "d" when placed between two vowels.  

Although it is tolerable in some cases, the use of "mga" before a noun applied with "ka-an" is not necessary anymore. example: "ang mga kabataan" (the children) is considered with redundancy, instead say "ang kabataan" which is more grammatically accurate.

Because the use of "KA-AN" groups objects into one entity, there are cases that a word will mean a place of which the objects are frequently or usually found/exist. Example: :"KAsagingAN" (from the root word "saging" (banana)) does not mean 'BANANAS', instead it means 'a place of bananas' or simply 'banana farm'.

2. There is this very rare case of which an adjective can be pluralized and the noun it described can be, but not necessarily, omitted. Example: the word "gamay" ('small') can be changed to "gaGmay" ('small ones')in which "g" was inserted in between. The same can be applied to "dako" which means 'big', changing it to "dagko" (big ones). Other words I can think of: "ta-as" (long): "tag-as" (long ones), this word is correctly spelled as "taas", I just put a hyphen because it is read as "/ta - as/" not with a long "a". Same with other examples "mubo" (short): "mugbo" (short ones) "layo" (far): "lagyo" (far ones) "du-ol" (near): "dug-ol" (near ones) Note: this cannot be applied to all adjectives

Gender

As a rule, Cebuano does not categorize nouns by gender. Natural gender are found in Spanish loans.

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Adjectives

Plural forms

Adjectives do not inflect for the plural. Common adjectives of measurement, however, have a plural form characterized by the infixation of /g/.

Comparative

In comparing two similar items, the comparative form indicates that one has a higher degree (or lower degree) of the quality expressed by the root, e.g., bigger, smaller, greater, etc.

The comparative degree is expressed in the following ways:

• Precede the adjective with labi pa "more (still)"
• Precede the adjective with the particle mas (from Spanish más)

Examples:

Moderate

Comparative superlative

The comparative superlative indicates the maximum degree of the quality expressed in comparison to other items. In Cebuano this degree can be expressed by a prefix, pinaka- or by the use of the particle labi (most).

Absolute superlative

The absolute superlative is the form used in exclamations, for example, "How pretty you are!", and denote the extreme quality of the root.

It is formed by prefixing Pagka- or Ka- (short form) to the root. The subject follows in the oblique.

Examples:

Pagkanindot kanimo! (Full)  Kanindot nimo! (Short)  How pretty you are! You are extremely pretty!  

Intensive

To express intensity, adjectives are followed by 'kaayo' (very).

Examples:

Ang mga dwendey mubo kaayo.  Dwarves are very short.  

Equivalence

Negation

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Linkers

Nga

The linker nga (pronounced /?a/) shows the relationship between modifiers to the head of the phrase. Examples of such relationships are adjective-noun, clause-noun, adverb-verb, adverb-adjective and noun-noun. Without the intervening linker, juxtaposition of modifier and head can constitute, not a phrase, but a sentence unto itself. Compare the phrase "ang batang lalaki" the/a young man/boy and the sentence "ang bata lalaki" the child is male or the child is a boy.

After words that end in a monophthong, diphthong or -n, nga is reduced to -ng /-?/.

Unlike Tagalog, nga is not used with numbers; ka below is used instead.

Ka

The linker ka is used to link a number and the phrase it modifies. Buok whole is sometimes used with ka.

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Enclitic particles

1. ba: used for yes-and-no questions and optionally for other types of questions.
2. gayud/gyud: indeed; used in affirmations or emphasis.
3. kay: because. NB: "kay" is also used as "is" or "are" in sentences with Subject-Predicate structure
4. lang/ra/da: limiting particle; just, only.
5. man: even, even if, even though, although
6. na: now, already (past positive tense), anymore (past negative tense)
7. pa: still, else
8. ug: and
9. usab, upod: also

Na and pa are not used in the same sentence.

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Interrogatives

• Unsa? What?
• Asa? Where? (for a place or person)
• Diin?, Dis-a? Where?
• Hain?, Saa/Asa? Where? (for an object)
• Kinsa? Who?
• Ngano? Why?
• Kang'kinsa? To whom?
• Giunsa? How? (past)
• Unsaon? How? (future)
• Kanus-a? When?
• Pila ka buok?, Pila? How many?
• Tagpila? How much?
• Diay ba? Really?

The word asa and hain:

Asa and hain--both mean where--have distinct uses in formal Cebuano usage.

Asa is used when asking about a place.

• Asa ka padulong? (Where are you going?)
• Asa ta molarga? (Where are we traveling to?)

Hain is used when asking about a food or thing.

• Hain na ang gunting? (Where is the pair of scissors?)
• Hain na ang pagkaon sa piyasta/pista? (Where is the food for the festival)

In spoken Cebuano, however, asa is commonly used to replace hain. In fact, hain, except by older generations, is rarely used.

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Verbs

Austronesian Alignment

Cebuano verbs are morphologically complex and take on a variety of affixes reflecting focus, aspect, mode, and others. Cebuano follows austronesian alignment, which means that verbs act as predicates, or words that tell about the subject or the topic. Basically, verbs conjugate according to the topic of the sentence. This topic can be the doer of the action, the recipient of the action, the purpose for the action, or the means by which the action was made possible. The form of the verb is dependent on the function of the topic in relation to said verb. Some Cebuano grammar teachers call it the Focus of the verb but some others call it Voice or Trigger.

Cebuano has four voices: the Active Voice a.k.a. the Agent Trigger, the Passive Voice for Direct Objects a.k.a. the Patient Trigger, the Passive Voice for Indirect Objects and/or Locations a.k.a. the Circumstantial Trigger, and the Passive Voice for Instruments a.k.a. the Instrument Trigger.

The Circumstantial Trigger Affixes select for location, benefactee and/or goal topics.

The direct case morpheme, which marks the topic in Cebuano, is ang or si.

Verb Roots vs. Verb Stems

A Verb Root is the simplest version of a verb that cannot be broken down further (excluding morphological processes and colloquial speech) and conveys its overall meaning or lemma. Affixes for the Voices, Moods, and Tenses may not be added to the Verb Root. A Verb Stem is the version of a verb that may have the affixes for the Voices, Moods, and Tenses. Sometimes, the Verb Stem is identical to the Verb Root, while other times, the Verb Stem is created through the addition of certain affixes not related to the Voices, Moods, and Tenses. These certain affixes are usually just memorized and are somewhat obscured, however, there are some commonly known affixes. A commonly known affix could be "pa" added to the beginning of a Verb Root in order to convey the meaning "to cause". For example, "padala" is the Verb Stem which means "to send" while "dala" is the Verb Stem which means "to bring", concluding that "padala" could literally mean "to cause to bring". Another commonly known affix is "hi" which is added to Verb Stems in the Mood of Being, Condition, and Emotion so that the verb may take in a Direct Object. Other commonly known affixes may be found elsewhere online or through experience.

Aspect, Mood, and Tense

Verbs in Cebuano conjugate not only according to the Topic of the sentence but also to the Mood of the action taking place and the Tense, more accurately described as the Aspect, of the action. Cebuano verbs conjugate through the addition of affixes to the verb stem.

There are four moods that the verb may conjugate to in the Cebuano language. The four moods are:

1. The Mood of Immediacy and Statement

This is the mood where the action was, is, or will be instantly completed. This mood is also the mood where the action may just be a statement and can be somewhat neutral in meaning.

2. The Mood of Duration

This is the mood where the action takes place over a not-always-specific duration of time.

3. The Mood of Being, Condition, and Emotion

This is the mood where the action is expressing the state of being something is in or its condition or even its emotion. Usually, verbs that express this mood do not have Direct Objects unless the prefix "hi-" is added to the original Verb Stem. This addition forms another Verb Stem which now allows the verb to have a Direct Object.

4. The Mood of Ability and Permission (Possibility and Plausibility)

This is the mood where the action is able to happen or allowed to happen. This mood may also be used to convey a statement or general possibility.

Tense vs. Aspect

In Cebuano, Tense is not exactly used, rather, Aspect is used. Cebuano verbs conjugate according to the Voice, the Mood, and also, the Aspect, for the action taking place. There are three Aspects in Cebuano. According to the functionalist school of grammar, there are two aspects, the "nasugdan" (incepted) aspect and the "pagasugdan" (expected) aspect. They claim that Cebuano verbs have the aspect of inception; that is whether the action has been initiated or not.

The "nasugdan" aspect is the aspect where the action had already started in the past, while the "pagasugdan" aspect is the aspect where the action has not started yet. Basically, past and present actions are in the "nasugdan" aspect while future actions and habitual actions are in the "pagasugdan" aspect.

The functionalist school of grammar, however, did not mention a third aspect, usually known as the Imperative or the Command aspect. This is the aspect where there is not exactly a tense nor true aspect but rather just an exclamation or command expressed.

Verb Affixes for Voice, Mood, and Aspect

Verb Affixes for Voice, Mood, and Aspect may overlap. Some of these affixes are shortened in speech and informal writing.

Not all groups of affixes can be used for some verbs; some verbs may not make sense with certain groups of affixes. For example, the verb stem anhi, which generally means to come, cannot have any of the passive voices' affixes. The only way to know which groups of affixes are able to be used are through online lists and experience for each verb stem one comes across. As well, the way affixes are used have changed throughout history and sometimes some verb forms of verbs are only used because of consistency. For example, the verb stem buak, to break, has these affixes for the Active Voice within the Mood of Ability and Permission that actually have the essence of the Mood of Immediacy and Statement, but using the usual affixes for the Mood of Immediacy and Statement in the Active Voice would sound weird to native speakers. For the most part, the way the affixes are labeled are the way they are used. Exceptions can be learned.

Now, here is the more in-depth list of all of the proper, grammatical affixes used for each voice:

Active Voice Affixes

The Active Voice in Cebuano (a.k.a. the Agent Trigger) is the Voice where the Topic of the sentence is the Agent (a.k.a. the Doer, the Subject, the Actor) of the sentence. The verb partly conjugates according to the fact that the Agent is the Topic. All Active Voice Affixes are actually prefixes.

The prefix mi+ is more formal than ni+, otherwise, they are interchangeable. It is common to drop pag+ when using it in the Mood of Immediacy and Statement because pag+ is more associated with the nag+ and mag+ prefixes of the Mood of Duration. However, pag+ is just a common imperative affix in the Active Voice in Cebuano.

The prefixes naga+ and maga+ may be shortened to ga+ in colloquial speech and in colloquial writing, which may indicate a lack of aspect but preserve the mood. Some argue that the difference between nag+ and mag+ versus naga+ and maga+ are either in formality (naga+ and maga+ being more formal) or in tense (naga+ being more in the present and nag+ being more in the past, while maga+ and mag+ are interchangeable).

Plurality depends on whether the topic is a plural noun. The topic may be the subject, the object, etc., however, because this is Active Voice, the topic should always be the Subject with these plural affixes. As long as the subjects are plural, the plural version is usually used, but this is not always mandatory. Some verbs only use the plural version while other verbs are rarely used in their plural versions.

* The "ng" in nang+ and mang+ may change to "m" or "n" or delete the next consonant depending on the succeeding consonant, refer to the Morphological Process of Assimilation in Cebuano for more information.

Sometimes pang+ is used as the plural version of the command aspect.

The prefix pagka+ may be shortened to ka+ for less emphasis. The plural prefixes nang+ and mang+ become nanga+ and manga+ if a verb has these prefixes (na+, ma+, and [sometimes, because it is not mandatory to have this last one while the others are mandatory] pagka+). For example, "Nangahigugma kami kanimo." which means "We love you."

The prefixes naka+ and maka+ may be shortened to ka+ in colloquial speech and in colloquial writing, which may get rid of the aspect within the prefixes. This could be similar to naga+ and maga+ being shortened to ga+.

Passive Voice for Direct Objects Affixes

The Passive Voice for Direct Objects in Cebuano (a.k.a. the Patient Trigger) is the Voice where the Topic of the sentence is the Direct Object (a.k.a. the Patient, the Goal, etc.) of the sentence. So the verb partly conjugates accordingly.

* Imnon and Imna went through some of the Morphological Processes in Cebuano.

These prefixes may also be used/confused for the Mood of Being, Condition, and Emotion in the Active Voice (See Above).

Passive Voice for Indirect Objects Affixes

The Passive Voice for Indirect Objects in Cebuano (a.k.a. the Circumstantial Triggers) is the Voice where the Topic of the sentence is the Indirect Object (a.k.a. the Benefactee, the Location, the Goal, etc.) of the sentence. So the verb partly conjugates accordingly.

In the examples, the topic is the dog (the Indirect Object) and it is used as the topic to emphasize that the dog got the gift, nothing else. In context, a person may say this to you when you are confused about whom/what you should get the gift for. Perhaps there is a cat and a dog and the person clarifies that you got/get/will get/should get a gift for the dog (not the cat).

Passive Voice for Instruments Affixes

The Passive Voice for Instruments (a.k.a. the Instrumental Trigger) is the Voice where the Topic of the sentence is the Instrument of the sentence. The Instrument is the noun that is used for the action of the sentence.

The prefix gi+ may also be used/confused for Both of the Moods for Immediacy and Statement & Duration in the Passive Voice of Direct Objects.

The prefixes i+ and i+ may be confused for one another but context will be sufficient for distinction.

* In context, the key usually cannot open the boss. However, if you want to be creative and say we opened the boss for the door, "para" or "alang" can be added before the indirect object to mean "for". Through context, "para" and "alang" and other prepositions for "for" are unnecessary. The "sa" marker may replace either or both of the "og" markers for definiteness and/or distinction. The "og" disappears if "para" or "alang" is used, but if "sa", "ni", or "kang" is there instead, "sa", "ni", and "kang" may stay.

There are over 1000 different verbs in Cebuano to choose from and to use. There are many more affixes that can be used for verb roots, verb stems, and new words. [1]

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Syntax

Sentences

1) equational ( topic = predicate ) ~ in this sentence type you can interchange the topic and the predicate without changing the thought of the sentence.

  a) "Mao kini ang Kabisay-an".              = This is the Visayas.    b) "Magbinisaya mi diri"                   = We speak Cebuano here.    c) "Kamao/Kahibalo ka magbinisaya?"               = Do you know how to speak Cebuano?.  

2) non-equational ( topic < predicate ) ~ in this sentence type the topic and the predicate are not interchangeable.

  a) "Filipino ang mga Bisaya."              = Visayans are Filipinos.    b) "Unsa ang imong kinahanglan?"          = What do you need?    c) "Naunsa na ang politika?               = What is wrong with politics.  

3) existential sentence of presence ~ sentences of this type tells the existence of a thing or idea.

  a) "Aduna'y Diyos sa langit."               = There is God in heaven.    b) "Didto'y halas sa kahoy."                = There was a snake in the tree.  

4) existential sentence of possession ~ sentences of this type tell about someone or something possessing something.

  a) " Aduna'y Diyos ang mga anghel sa langit."  = (The angels in heaven have a God.)    b) "Naa koy ilimnon sa balay."                                                            = (I have something to drink at home.)  

5) locative sentence ~ this type of sentence tells the location of a thing.

  a) "Ania ang kwarta."                       = Here is the money.    b) "Tua siya sa bukid."                     = He/she is in the mountain.  

6) meteorologic sentence ~ this type of sentence tells about weather condition, noise level, etc., of a place.

  a) "Tugnaw dinhi sa Baguio City."            = It is cold here in Baguio.    b) "Init kaayo ang adlaw diri sa Sugbo."     = The weather is very hot in here in Cebu.  

7) exclamatory remark ~ praises and unexpected discoveries belong here.

  a) "Daghana nimo'g sakyanan!"             = You have plenty of cars    b) "Gwapaha nimo!"                        = You are pretty    c) "Kasaba ba ninyo!"                     = You are so noisy  

8) imperatives ~ commands and requests

  a) "Isugba kanang isda."                  = Grill that fish.    b) "Ngari/Ali/Hali diri."                 = Come here.    c) "Ayaw mo panabako diri"               = Do not smoke here.  

9) interrogatives ~ questions that are not answerable by yes or no.

  a) "Kinsa ka?"                             = Who are you?    b) "Unsa'y imong ngalan?"                   = What is your name?  

10) confirmation ~ questions that are basically answered by yes or no. constructed like the first 6 sentence type with the insertion of the particle "ba" as a second term.

  a) "Kini ba ang Kabisay-an?"               = Is this the Visayas?    b) "Kamao ka ba molangoy?"                = Do you know how to swim?    c) "Unsa ba ang sinultihan ninyo?"         = What language do you speak?    d) "Isugba ba kining isda?"                = Shall this fish be grilled?  

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Footnotes

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External links

• Visayan Academy of Arts and Letters
• Academic Papers about Cebuano
• A (rather old) Cebuano grammar
• Ang Dila Natong Bisaya - Cebuano grammar written in Cebuano
• Cebuano Study Notes by Tom Marking

Source of article : Wikipedia